What is the best way to claim that God is eternal?

This paper will discuss the best way to understand the claim that God is eternal in a variety of different ways. It will explain the different understandings of the word eternal, such as ‘everlastingness’ and ‘atemporality’. The paper will then move forward into analysing timelessness and everlastingness by looking at the perfection and change argument, followed by the free will argument, the teleological argument in terms of perfection, and a view of an omniscient God. This will then be continued by looking into the knowledge and change arguments, and an omnitemporal God. The paper will then summarise and conclude the main arguments.

The claim ‘God is eternal’ could have many meanings or understandings, the Oxford Dictionary definition of eternal is something that is ‘existing or lasting forever without change’ (Dictionary, 2016). This then leads into an everlastingness, which essentially means that God is temporal, but exists forever. Temporal can mean either a secular view, or can be used in relation to or denoting time. (Dictionary, 2016). The final view point is atemporality, this means that God is not a temporal being and exists outside of all time. All three of these terms offer a different understand of how the word ‘eternal’ can be interpreted.

According to Augustine and Boethius, God exists apart from time, or outside of time. He possesses life all at once, but the terminology ‘all at once’ is not used to describe a moment of time, but the absence of a temporal sequence. So it is not as though God has always existed in time, for as long as time has existed and always will, but rather that God does not exist in time at all. (Helm, 2014). This idea is important as it claims that God has never existed within the social construct we know to be time. It claims that He has always been outside of time, which allows him to be eternal with no boundaries linking him to the corporeal world, and He is a separate and higher being, able to communicate and exist in a separate realm which is unexplainable to humankind.

In the argument for timelessness and against everlastingness, it is important to include the perfection and change argument. The perfection argument consists of three main premises. Premise one is that a degree of perfection is given to all beings. Premise two is that there is a causal being which gives the perfection to the finite beings. The final premise concludes that there must be a ‘best’ being who is able to create these things, and that being must be God. This is important because it allows for God to be the creator of all and also be the most perfect being. It allows him to exist within timelessness because He could exist outside of time but also always be present. It is also backed up with the idea that God is a perfect being, and a perfect being cannot undergo change at any point. For a perfect being to be located in time means that they are always subject to change, and therefore God cannot exist within time. (Kreeft, 1994)

Within the argument for timelessness, and also linking to the perfection and change argument it is plausible to include the idea of influenced evolution. This is possible because it still places God at the beginning of time as we know it, and also gives space for evolution to bring change and developments to the earth. It is said that both science and religion can co-exist in terms of creation as many people of faith will claim that the bible should not be taken literally, it is open to all kinds of interpretation. (Evolution and Religion can Co-exist, Scientists Say., 1996) This is an important explanation as it gives light to the issues of God being timelessness as it allows him to have organised and created the earth as we know it, but without having to have a physical entity to do so. It gives the ideas that He created the earth but then placed evolution where necessary to ensure that the earth will gravitate and grow to what He had planned for it to do.

To add to the argument for perfection, it is plausible to include the teleological argument, and more specifically, William Paley’s watch analogy. This argument is based around an idea written by William Paley about a blind watchmaker. The main text of the argument is as follows: “Suppose I found a watch upon the ground, and it should be inquired how the watch happened to be in that place, I should hardly think … that, for anything I knew, the watch might have always been there. Yet why should not this answer serve for the watch as well as for  astone that happened to be lying on the ground?… For this reason, and for no other; namely, that, if the different parts had been differently shaped from what they are, if a different size from what they are, or placed after any other manner, or in any order than that in which they are placed, either no motion at all would have been carried on in the machine, or none which would have answered the use that is now served by it.” (Paley, 1867, p. 1). This raises the claim that if he had found a watch upon the ground, what is to say it had not been there forever, like a stone. It is not due to a persons’ loss that it has been found there, and it may have existed on that specific piece of ground since the beginning of time, just like a stone may. Paley’s claim then continues, and talks about how the intricacies of making a watch are similar to creating the world, for if a watch is not made with the correct materials placed in the correct places, the watch would not work. This relates to the creation of the world, for if it had not been created with the exact materials placed in the exact places they were required then it could not have come into existence, therefore explaining the need for an intelligent designer, or as a religious person would view it, a God. (Himma)

The watch analogy is useful to add to the idea of perfection and change because if the world had been created slightly differently, it would not work, and that is similar to the universe. A watch requires a watch maker, so in respect, a world requires a world maker, more commonly known as an intelligent designer. This adds to the idea that God must exist outside of time as he could not exist within a corporeal timeframe to be able to create something on such a huge scale, whilst also being inside of time.

To continue this argument, it is important to think about everlastingness, and the problems that it causes. For example, if God exists in time, and he is omniscient then he must now know what we will do in the future. If God is omniscient and therefore all knowing, then humans cannot be truly free because all actions; past, present and future, are then known by God, and in that case humans do not have free will, and that means that they inevitably cannot be free agents. The free will defence takes away the idea that everything is pre-determined by God and allows human choice, which takes away God’s ability to be omniscient.

God is traditionally viewed as being omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent and eternal. It is important to think of an omnipotent God at the same time as looking into an eternal God as the two often coincide with one another. For God to be omnipotent, He then has the power to do anything and He is also able to bring about any state of affairs whatsoever, this causes issues as he is only able to do things that are logically possible. This brings forth the paradox of the stone. Premise one, is that either God can create a stone He cannot lift, or He cannot create a stone he cannot lift. The second premise is that if he can create such a stone, then there is something he cannot do. I.E lift the stone. Premise three is that if He cannot create such a stone there is something He cannot do. Either way, there is something He cannot do. The final premise to this argument is that God, therefore cannot be omnipotent. This is important as it provides evidence of God being unable to do something, which links to the ideas that He can or cannot exist within or outside of time, to make him eternal. It is down to interpretation of the reader to decide which force they wish to believe. (Pearce, 2012)

On the contrary, within the argument for everlastingness, the knowledge argument arises. The knowledge argument bases itself on the idea that if God is not temporal then He couldn’t know temporal facts. But God is omniscient, so He must know all facts. Therefore, God is temporal. This argument raises concerns in the idea that God must know everything there is to know about the world, whether it is good or bad, but He chooses to do nothing to counteract those things. This idea places God in a construct of time which inevitably reduces him from being able to be timeless, and therefore perfect. Using the idea of a temporal God reduces Him from the ability to be omniscient and omnibenevolent as He cannot be these things whilst also being within time.

Another argument which is part of the argument for everlastingness is the change argument. This argument bases itself of the idea that God can only change if He is temporal, but He needs to be able to change in order to answer prayers, show forgiveness and also show compassion. This is vital, because in all major religions it is known that people will use prayer to ask God for these things, and if He is not able to change himself to provide what they require then He is evidently not able to be everlasting, or non-temporal. However, the idea that time could pass without a change happening is a controversial idea, and it is known that for something to change it requires a passage of time to do so. (Mortenson, 2015) For example, a person cannot age without time passing by. It is important for God to have the ability of change as many religious followers will go to Him daily through prayer and seek His help or forgiveness. This is a founding factor of many religions. It is such an important factor that most religions have to go to prayer several times a day. If God is unable to change for them, it could cause a lack of faith for his followers.

In an argument for the timelessness of God, it is easy to believe that God is omnitemporal, meaning that He is always outside of time and that he never began to exist, or will ever cease to exist. This raises the question, did God exist before creation, or is He timeless without creation? Many will claim that time may have begun at the moment of creation, with time coming into existence with the universe. Any time before the universe began would then lack any intrinsic stability. Or, it is possible to believe that prior to existence there are literally no intervals of time, and this would entirely disappear at the moment that time began. (Craig, 2000) This leads people to thinking that if time did not begin before creation, and God is the creator then he must exist within time, because otherwise He had existed in a periodical timeframe which ended at the first moment of creation, therefore meaning that God would have disappeared in it, also. This explains that God must not exist timelessly and He has to exist within time.

To conclude this paper, to look at both sides of the argument for timelessness and everlastingness, to prove that God is eternal, it is clear that neither side is stronger than its opposition. They have both got good evidence and support for themselves and it is evident that different people will have different opinions on which they believe to be true. From a religious perspective, people of faith will believe that God is timeless and exists in a world outside of time, existing before creation. On the otherhand, on the side of science and it is more likely to claim that they would believe that God exists, if they do believe in a God, in time as it is an easier concept to understand than if he exists non-temporally. Drawing on the ideas of perfection and change, but also knowledge and omnitemporality, it is evident that both of sides of the argument can interlink if required to allow God to be eternal both inside and outside of time, just like a theist or deist could view God as actively being inside and outside of His creation.

 

 

Bibliography

Craig, W. L. (2000). Timelessness and Omnitemporality. Retrieved December 11, 2016, from Leaderu: http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/omnitemporality.html

Dictionary, O. (2016). Oxford Dictionary. Retrieved 12 9, 2016, from Eternal : https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/eternal

Evolution and Religion can Co-exist, Scientists Say. (1996). Retrieved 12 9, 2016, from National Geographic: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1018_041018_science_religion_2.html

Helm, P. (2014, March 21). Eternity. Retrieved December 11, 2016, from The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/eternity/#EteVie

Himma, K. E. (n.d.). Design Arguments for the Existence of God. . Retrieved December 11, 2016, from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.: http://www.iep.utm.edu/design/#SH1c

Kreeft, P. (1994). Twenty Arguments For The Existence Of God. Retrieved 12 9, 2016, from http://www.peterkreeft.com/topics-more/20_arguments-gods-existence.htm#3

Mortenson, C. (2015, December 21). Change and Inconsistency. Retrieved December 11, 2016, from The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/change/

Paley, W. (1867). Natural Theology: Or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity Collected from the Appearences of Nature. Boston: Gould and Lincoln.

Pearce, K. L. (2012). Omnipotence. Retrieved December 11, 2016, from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.: http://www.iep.utm.edu/omnipote/

 

 

Is Female Genital Mutilation a religious or cultural practise?

This paper will be focused on female genital mutilation and the discussion on whether it is a cultural or religious practice. It will look at what female genital mutilation or female circumcision is and how it is performed, alongside a delve into the consequences it can have, with a deeper look into the cultural and religious aspects and meanings behind why it is practiced, where it originates from and if it is still relevant in a post modern society, before finally focusing on whether female genital mutilation is a cultural or religious practice.

Female Genital Mutilation is a procedure involving partial or total removal of the female sexual genitalia, or causing injury to the female genital organs (Organisation, 2007). It can happen to a female from age 0 up to age 15. Female genital mutilation can be practiced in a multitude of different ways, all categorized into types; type 1 is also known as clitoridectomy, and consists of partial or total removal of the clitoris. Type 2 is known as excision, where the clitoris and labia minora are partially or totally removed, with or without the excision of the labia majora. Type 3 is the most severe form, known as infibulation. Type 3 consists of narrowing the vaginal opening by creating a seal through cutting and repositioning the labia minora and the labia majora, with or without the removal of the clitoris. The seal is not fully covering, as a gap is left for urinal and menstruation purposes, and it should only be broken or opened through either penetrative sex or surgery. Type 4 is the final type of female genital mutilation and consists of all other types of damage to the genitalia for non-medicinal purposes such as cutting, pricking, piercing, incising and scraping. (Organisation, 2007) It is thought by many that female genital mutilation was originally practised on female slaves to prevent sexual intercourse and avoid pregnancy. Female genital mutilation is performed by an elder woman, who has undergone the practise themselves and it can also be incredibly unsanitary due to the tools that are used to perform this procedure (Andro, 2016).

The consequences of female genital mutilation are incredibly damaging to the person who has it performed on them. The effects are not only immediate but also can have long term damage too. The immediate consequences of female genital mutilation include severe pain and bleeding, which can ultimately lead to haemorrhaging, difficulty passing urine, infection and sometimes, death. It is known that almost all women who have undergone the procedure experience pain and bleeding, and it can also cause psychological damage as the girl is held down during the experience. There is research which suggests that female genital mutilation can lead to septicaemia due to the tools used to carry out the procedure being unclean and sanitary. There is a greater risk of haemorrhaging and death with infibulations, but can also happen as a side effect of any type of female genital mutilation. (Organisation, 2007)

The long term effects of female genital mutilation are chronic pain, development of cysts, abscesses and ulcers in the pelvic region, problems with the reproductive system, and post traumatic stress disorder. It also causes problems during child birth as the scar tissue may tear or the opening may need to be cut to allow for it to stretch so they are able to birth the child more easily, but this may also lead to the mother haemorrhaging which could then cause for the new-born baby and the mother to go into distress (Organisation, 2007). Due to the effects of female genital mutilation it is common for females to lose their sexual libido and to try and refrain from having penetrative sex as it causes them too much pain and they receive very little or no sexual stimulation from this.

The practise of female genital mutilation is thought to have originated in the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula, and is thought to date back at least 2000 years and can be traced back to Ancient Egypt. The reason for this thought is that when looking at the bodies of Ancient Egyptian mummies, there are marks of excision and infibulation. It is now known that Female Genital Mutilation is practised on 28 different African countries, and has also been documented in both central and south America, and also the UK. It is known that female genital mutilation has been performed in the western world, by the Early Romans via use of ‘Chastity Belts’; a form of mechanical infibulation. It is also said that female genital mutilation was used in the western world as a way of eradicating female masturbation as it would aid them in finding a way to restrain their sexual feelings. This type was used mainly in Europe (Andro, 2016). A lot of people believe that it began and evolved from the earliest communities due to people wanting to have power over the females’ sexual organs. For example, the Romans performed an act of putting gold rings through a woman’s labia to stop them from becoming pregnant, as they believed that penetrative sex would be painful with these rings in place. (FGM, 2015)

Culturally, Female Genital Mutilation is supported by traditional beliefs and values that a woman should uphold in order for her to be seen as pure and ready to be taken as a wife. It is viewed as a rite of passage to womanhood. In some African communities it is believed that a daughter would not be taken as a wife unless they were circumcised. (FGM, 2015). Many intellectuals who have researched into female genital mutilation will say that it is practised in communities all over the world, and it cannot be traced down and pinned onto one specific religion. It is done as more of a cultural ideology which has been passed down through thousands of generations and it is done as part of a patriarchal practise for men. The idea of a male patriarchy sets a precedent that women are the lesser valued sex and that in order to prove themselves as being ‘worthy’ of marriage, they should be cut and maimed in a way to make them more sexually appeasing for a man. Therefore, the practise of female genital mutilation in most African countries is done for this reason. There is also a view within the African cultures that a girl cannot move forward into adulthood without having this procedure, meaning it is viewed as a rite of passage. A lot of African mothers hold this view and will force their child to go through with the act as they believe it will bring them luck and a wealthy husband, when she marries (Unknown, 2015).

Around the world, female genital mutilation is performed in communities as a social norm, it is something that has become so normal within their culture that when a female reaches a certain age, they undergo this procedure. It is also done as a means of acceptance by the community, and many girls who have not had the procedure will often choose to have it, as they fear being rejected by their peers and the community they live in. It is believed in many cultures that female genital mutilation will reduce a woman’s sexual libido and that is used as a reason for it to be performed so a woman will be pure when she marries, and will be a virgin until she has intercourse with her husband, which is seen as honourable for a female. In most of the places where female genital mutilation is carried out, it is considered as being a cultural aspect of that place, and that is then used as a reason for continuation of this procedure. (WHO, 2016).

However, a lot of people claim that female genital mutilation is a religious practise, that is performed in several different religions. This claim could either link all religions together or it could identify another important factor. It is known that in the Middle East and in Africa, both Muslims and Christians practise female genital mutilation. Both of these religions are under the umbrella term of the ‘Abrahamic religions’, which could identify a link between them. It is thought that female genital mutilation is potentially religious because of the wide range of religions it is known to be practised in. it is known that religious leaders will take a standpoint in the argument of female genital mutilation, each one of them varying from promoting it, to contributing to its elimination. (WHO, 2016).

In Muslim countries where female genital mutilation is practised, it is justified by something Prophet Muhammad said “Do not cut too severely as it is better for a woman and more desirable for a husband”. (Robinson, 2015). Although, as much as this statement is giving ‘permission’ for female genital mutilation to happen, it does not state that it is enforced and is mandatory to happen in the religion, there are passages in the Qur’an which oppose the idea of female genital mutilation, such as the idea of the clitoris being created for the sole purpose of receiving and creating pleasure for a woman, and it does not state anywhere that it should be damaged, or made smaller anywhere. (Robinson, 2015). To counteract this, it is known that in the Islamic society, a woman should still be a virgin and her hymen should not be broken until she is married as a sign of loyalty and purity and obedience to her religion and to her husband and family. This is often used as a way of justifying female genital mutilation and a way to link it to the religion. (Robinson, 2015)

Female genital mutilation is commonly seen throughout Christianity, as well as Islam, as a way of proving that the females are just as worthy as the males in proving their covenant to god. However, female genital mutilation is not solely linked to any religion, it is just a characteristic of many different religions. It is seen in Islam, Christianity, Judaism and many native religions too (Unknown, Q&A on Female Genital Mutilation, 2010).

This leads to the question, is female genital mutilation still relevant in a post-modern society? Is it still something that is required culturally, but maybe not religiously. It seems clear that the post-modern world is becoming more aware now of what female genital mutilation is and how it is performed, but nobody is addressing the important issues as to finding out deeply why it is done. Many people will say that in terms of a culture continuing to exist they are required to keep practising their traditions as they always have done, and with female genital mutilation being a founding factor in many cultures, it will therefore continue, however it is not addressing the safety of the girls that it is being performed on, and the after effects are not being thought of.

It is now illegal to perform female genital mutilation in the United Kingdom and has been since 2003, however it is still prevalent. It is happening more secretly now than it used to, as people are having to travel away for it to happen. This usually happens during the summer holidays to allow for it to heal before returning home. This is a clear indicator that female genital mutilation is not a cultural ideology and it is evident that it is being practised somewhat religiously, as it is not part of the culture in the United Kingdom (gov.uk, 2016). It is clear from this, that female genital mutilation is not relevant in this society, as it is classed as child-abuse and is illegal to be performed in the United Kingdom. However, it is potentially still relevant in African countries as their societies and cultures have not progressed as much as others. This is damaging as it means girls between the ages of 0-15 are still at risk of having this procedure performed on them.

In comparison, it is easy to say that female genital mutilation is both cultural and religious, as it is performed in certain societies for cultural reasons such as tradition that has been passed down for centuries, but also religious as it is common for girls to be seen as unclean and dirty if they are not virgins upon marriage, and that then makes them less likely to be taken as a wife, so many people of faith would force their daughters to have this procedure so that they are more likely to be taken as a wife so they can bring wealth to their families. This is also common in many African cultures.

To conclude, female genital mutilation is forced upon young girls, many of whom are not given a choice. It can happen as young as birth and it is likely to have long term side effects such as post-traumatic stress disorder, and problems with menstruation and child birth. The immediate side effects can lead to death if the procedure goes wrong, the tools used are not clean and sanitary, as it can lead to infection and septicaemia, or the girl haemorrhages severely. It is evident that there is not a lot of evidence linking female genital mutilation to a religious practise, which allows the belief that it is a cultural practise and is performed under the precipice of traditions which have been carried out for centuries. It is right to say that from the evidence gathered in this paper, that female genital mutilation is a cultural practise, rather than a religious one, although the two can be easily confused as it is seen from a more of a religious perspective in terms of it being performed within Islam.

 

 

Bibliography

Andro, A. (2016). Female Genital Mutilation. Overview and Current Knowledge. , 219.

FGM, N. (2015). Historical and Cultural. Retrieved January 2, 2017, from fgmnationalgroup: http://www.fgmnationalgroup.org/historical_and_cultural.htm

gov.uk. (2016). Female Genital Mutilation facts. Retrieved January 2, 2017, from gov.uk: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/482799/6_1587_HO_MT_Updates_to_the_FGM_The_Facts_WEB.pdf

Organisation, W. H. (2007). What is FGM. Retrieved 1 2, 2017, from endfgm: http://www.endfgm.eu/female-genital-mutilation/what-is-fgm/

Robinson, B. (2015, April 11). Female Genital Mutilation. Retrieved January 2, 2017, from religious tolerance. : http://www.religioustolerance.org/fem_cirm.htm

Unknown. (2010). Q&A on Female Genital Mutilation. Retrieved January 2, 2017, from Human Rights Watch: https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/06/16/qa-female-genital-mutilation

Unknown. (2015). Religion or Culture? Retrieved January 2, 2017, from stopfgmmideast: http://www.stopfgmmideast.org/background/islam-or-culture/

WHO. (2016). Female Genital Mutilation. Retrieved January 2, 2017, from World Health Organisation: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/

 

 

Homosexuality within the Christian and Judaic faiths.

This paper will focus on the view of the lesbian, gay and bisexual community as seen by religion, with a strong focus on Christianity. It will focus directly on the changing views of the Christian Church, how the Christian Church views same-sex marriage and also how the bible has been interpreted to give people ideas of how homosexuality should be viewed.  The research will be backed up using quotes from the Bible and also quotes from Pope Francis.

Homosexuality is defined in the Oxford dictionary as a person who is attracted to a person of the same sex. (Dictionary, 2016) The view of same-sex relationships within religion is that it should be shunned upon as it is written in many sacred texts as being wrong and shameful. For example, in Leviticus 18:22 it says “Do not have sexual relations with a man as one does with a woman; that is detestable”. (Tools, 2016) Homosexuality is something that is rather controversial when thinking of its origin, as many people think of it as being a choice, and others think that it is an attribute that you are born with.

In both Christian and Judaic faith, religions homosexuality is thought of as being sinful and a rejection of the laws given by God for his people to follow. It is viewed as something that is chosen and caused by temptation and to treat homosexuality, a person should resist temptation or if they are unable to do so, experience conversion therapy (Moon, 2014). Conversion therapy is a form of treatment used by many followers of both Christians and Jews that is trying to change a homosexual’s brain patterns to ensure that they no longer have an attraction to a person of the same sex as themselves. There are no professional standards into how it should be performed as it is not a mainstream psychological treatment, and it is usually done by sending electrodes through a persons’ body to attempt to change their brain patterns. There are other methods of conversion therapy that are less harmful to the body, such as psychoanalysis or talking therapy. In this type of therapy, a person is forced to talk about how they feel and what makes them attracted to a person of the same sex and they are then influenced into self-hatred and taught to hate themselves for feeling the way they do. This is done as a form of conditioning, so that whenever people have thoughts or feelings about another person of the same sex they are reminded that it is wrong and they should have negative feelings about it, to try and persuade them not to pursue the feelings.  However, many psychologists would say that conversion therapy does not actually work for various different reasons. The strongest argument they put forward is that homosexuality is not considered a mental disorder, so treating it in the same way a person with depression, anxiety, psychosis and similar mental disorders will not work (Pappas, 2012).

In Judaism, homosexuality is thought of in the same way as in Christianity. Homosexuals are excommunicated from their faith and synagogues’ and are thought to be demons and as devilish creatures. It is common for homosexual’s who belong to both of these faiths to commit suicide both after coming out as being attracted to a person of the same gender, or before people are able to find out to escape from the shame. Around 30% of successful youth suicides are performed by homosexuals aged fifteen to twenty-four. Due to homosexuality being viewed as such a sin, the two main reasons that are most commonly known are because of shame, due to their lifestyle being considered to be a mental disorder, addiction or mental illness. This causes them to feel depressed and causes suicidal ideation. The other main attributing factor is due to despair when they are told that they will be trapped in the homosexual lifestyle forever (Robinson, 2008).

Within the Christian Church, it is thought that homosexuality is wrong, and this idea is formed by teachings in the Bible, such as when God created Adam, he created Eve after as he believed that he should have a companion in order to populate the earth. He did not create another Eve. This idea has lead Christians to believe that a relationship between man and man or woman and woman is wrong as it is not what God has intended for us (Edmiston, 2002). The Bible also states that “If a man has sexual relations with a man as one does with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They are to be put to death; their blood will be on their own heads” (Leviticus 20:13) (20:13, 2016). This quotation also backs up the idea that homosexuality is wrong. It is common for the Bible to be misinterpreted by many people, more commonly believers that read the Bible as a literal truth and as the exact word of God. These people do not allow for interpretation and are also very strict and adhere to their faith in the exact way they believe the Bible tells them to. However, it has recently been thought that the Bible only stands as a literal truth if you are living in the context that it was written, it is now thought to have hidden wisdoms and teachings behind what it is saying. For example, the quote “if a man is to lay with a man as he would a woman, both should be stoned” is not a literal statement and does not mean that a homosexual person should be killed for essentially laying with another man. It could mean, that two men should not engage in a commitment to one another such as a friendship as it could be seen as being a sin to their God.

In other places of the Bible, it is claimed that the Wedding at Cana (John 2) is Jesus marrying his disciples. Therefore, Jesus was a male, who married twelve other males. In this instance, it cannot be thought of homosexuality to be a sin, as the Son of God was able to have engage in a same sex relationship, with another man. This evidence is can also be backed up by the writings of Paul, who says that Jesus was married, but does not claim whom his marriage was with. It is a common belief that it is a metaphorical marriage to the Church, but with the Wedding at Cana happening before Paul’s writings, it is difficult to comprehend which may be true.

In more recent times, these ideas have changed. In 2014, churches in the UK changed their stance on same sex marriage and allowed for two people of the same gender to marry, in a Church, if they wished to. Although people in same sex relationships were able to have civil partnerships, which are not legally recognized by law and does not give the person the same rights as they have in a marriage, it was still illegal until the 29^th March 2014 for a person to legally be married to their partner, giving them the same rights as a heterosexual couple (News, 2014). The Bishop of Norwich, Reverened Graham James said “the Church of England believes marriage is between one man and one woman for life .. it is untidy for the law to have two definitions, but I think we can live with untidiness” (News, 2014). However, although the Church has legally changed its stance on same sex marriages, a lot of religious followers still hold the same view, that marriage is only sacred between a man and a woman.

To add to the idea of a changing church, in 2016 Pope Francis delivered a speech saying that he believes the church should apologise to gay people for the way they have been treated in the past and should, from now on show them respect. He said, “I will repeat what the catechism of the Church says, that they (homosexuals) should not be discriminated against, that they should be respected, accompanied pastorally”. Although he has reaffirmed that homosexual acts are sinful, he claims that homosexual orientation is not. This is seen as a breakthrough within the Christian and Catholic churches as it teaches that the person at the highest point of their religion is willing to change his views on homosexuality, and he also encourages others to do the same. (News, Pope Francis says Church should apologise to Gay People, 2016)

To conclude, homosexuality in religion has always been viewed as being sinful, disrespectful to God and that view has always stayed truthful. It is uncommon for people to think of homosexuality in the church as being accepted, and that has in no way change, even with the church allowing same sex marriages in the church. Many churches will still refuse to ordain a marriage to a couple of the same sex and a lot of people, will refuse to befriend a person due to their sexual orientation. In Judaism the view of homosexuality has not changed a significant amount, but with Pope Francis recently releasing his statement about sexual orientation being okay and guided people back into the Catholic church, in years to come a more noticeable change may occur. Within the Christian Church a huge change has been noticed, homosexuals are being welcomed into the church and less and less people are being excommunicated and cut off from their family and friends. The rates of youth suicide has dropped significantly lower all over the world and homosexuality is mostly now seen as being equal to heterosexuality within the Christian Church.

Bibliography

20:13, L. (2016). Leviticus 20:13. Retrieved November 13, 2016, from biblehub: http://biblehub.com/leviticus/20-13.htm

Dictionary, O. (2016). Homosexual. Retrieved December 13, 2016, from Online Oxford Dictionary: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/homosexual

Edmiston, J. (2002). What does the bible say about Same Sex Marriage? Retrieved November 13, 2016, from christiananswers: http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-f018.html

Moon, D. (2014). Beyond the Dichtomy: Six Religious Views of Homosexuality. Journal of Homosexuality .

News, B. (2016). Pope Francis says Church should apologise to Gay People. Retrieved November 13, 2016, from BBC.co.uk: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-36636845

News, B. (2014, March 29). Same-sex marriage now legal as first couples wed. Retrieved November 13, 2016, from bbc.co.uk: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-26793127

Pappas, S. (2012, November 27). 5 facts to know about conversion therapy. Retrieved November 13, 2016, from livescience: http://www.livescience.com/25082-gay-conversion-therapy-facts.html

Robinson, B. A. (2008, August 1). Suicides among gay and lesbian youth. Retrieved November 13, 2016, from religioustolerance: http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_suic.htm

Tools, B. S. (2016). 25 Bible Verses about Homosexuality. Retrieved December 13, 2016, from Bible Study Tools: http://www.biblestudytools.com/topical-verses/bible-verses-about-homosexuality/

 

Intellectual differences between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims.

This paper will discuss the differences between the two main groups within Islam, the Sunnis and Shi’ites. There will be an inclusion of quotes from a range of different books showing the differences of the intellectual structures between Sunni Islam and Shi’ism. This paper will address the academic and devotional differences between them and also look at the way they have both adapted daily life to follow the schools of thought and the five pillars of Islam. It will also include verses from the Qur’an as evidence, before finally analysing the key differences between Sunni and Shi’ites.

 

Islam is the last of the three Abrahmic religions, founded in 610, when the Prophet Muhammad was aged 40, meditating in a cave on the twenty-sixth or twenty-seventh night of Ramadan. He felt a strong presence of an angel, who told him he was the messenger of Allah. This occasion marks the first revelation according to Muslims. Over the following twenty years, more revelations came and were recited by Prophet Muhammad to his followers, who wrote them down on pieces of palm leaves, camel bone or patches of leather so they were able to collate them to create a book of 114 suras and 6616 verses, known today as the Qur’an; the holy book of Islam. Prophet Muhammad preached to his followers and encouraged them to leave their belief systems and to follow Allah, which angered Meccan traders as they lived in a paganistic society. By 619, Prophet Muhammad had forty men and twenty women following Allah, and he realised the best way to keep Islamic Umma was to give a sense of solidarity, leading to loyalties that became ritualistic and part of every day life. These are known as the Five Pillars of Islam. (Hiro, 1989)

 

The Five Pillars of Islam are five obligations that were given by Prophet Muhammad through Hadith. They are Shahada, Salat, Zakat, Sawm and Hajj. Shahada is a central precept of Islam; to embrace the religion a believer is to say the following prayer before witnesses. “la ilaha illallah muhammadur rasulallah” which translates to “there is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the messenger of Allah” (Hiro, 1989, p. 10). Salat is the practise of prayer, whether alone or at a mosque or group worship. Friday and holy day prayers are said to give the group more solidarity and take them closer to god. Prophet Muhammad said that all followers of Allah should leave all daily tasks and turn to prayer at least 3 times a day. Zakat is to show purification by giving to charity. The Qur’an states that ‘free will offerings’ for the ‘poor and needy’ are required to show purification and truth to yourself. It is mandatory that all Muslims should give 2.5% of their wealth to charity annually, and if this is not done they are not obeying the Umma set by Prophet Muhammad. Sawm is done during Ramadan, it means to fast or abstain from food, drink and sex during sunlight hours. It is important that Muslims follow this as it teaches them to exercise control of physical needs and helps motivate a self disciplined community. Finally, Hajj is a pilgrimage taken during Dhu Al Hijja, the final month of the Islamic calender. It begins by circling the Kaaba in Mecca, then offering prayers at both Arafat and Muzdilfa and finally sacrificing an animal at Mina. Hajj should be completed in five days and at current two million Muslims worldwide attend Hajj each year. Prophet Muhammad prescribed the Hajj rituals after his last pilgrimage to Mecca at 632. At this time he was the most powerful man in Arabia.

 

Prophet Muhammad died 8 June 632, after fighting an illness. During his time fighting the illness, came the most contentious issue in Islamic history. The issue was the decision of who will become Muhammad’s successor between Abu Bakr and Ali ibn Abi Talib. Abu Bakr lead public prayer whilst Muhammad was sick, but the prophet chose Ali to was his body after he died. Whilst Ali and other followers mourned the death and the Prophet, the Medinese followers held a meeting which was attended by Abu Bakr. The Medinese argued that only a Meccan from the Quraish tribe (like Prophet Muhammad) should lead them, allowing them to anoint Abu Bakr as the first Caliph. (Hiro, 1989)

 

Two years from this, Abu Bakr died, but before his death nominated Umar ibn Khattab as his successor. After the death of Umar, the caliph was offered to Ali, but only if he agreed to two conditions. He had to rule according to the Qur’anic teachings and the practises of the Prophet and accept precedents that have been set by previous caliphs, however he rejected the second condition and the caliph was given to Uthman. The rebels murdered Uthman, before Ali was elected as caliph. Ali was elected as he was recognised as being the first among the Muslims by the rebels and most adult male Medinese. Muwaiya in Abi Sufian, governor of Syria, the Prophets brother-in-law and Aisha, his last surviving wife believed the death of Uthman should be avenged and refused to accept Ali as the caliph. In 658 the armies of Ali and Muwaiya clashed in battle, Muwaiya men started wearing pages of the Qur’an on the uniform, causing a ceasefire. In arbitration, both contenders were deposed and a new caliph was to be elected by notables. Ali’s representative stood first and declared the disposition of both men, however Muwaiya’s representative announced Muwaiya as the new caliph. Ali stuck to his office and the treachery of Muwaiya was condemned by Shia’s, leaving a deep mark on the religion. (Hiro, 1989)

 

When Muwaiya died in 680, the Umayyad’s had consolidated their power, yet Shia’s were still arguing that because Ali had been divinely appointed as Prophet Muhammad’s successor and Allah’s message had been received by Ali and his family, it should only be the descendants of the first truly Muslim family who rule Dar al Islam. The concept of Imamate rose from this, meaning that only those who are in the lineage of Prophet Muhammad, Fatima and Ali can govern the Muslims on behalf of Allah. However, this view was not accepted by Sunni Muslims.

 

Following the death of Hussein, considered the greatest martyrdom, there was a split within Islam, causing the evolution of the Sunni’s and Shi’ites, who have enjoyed evolved into two distinct groups within Islam. 90% of the worlds population of Muslims follow the Sunni interpretation of Islam whilst 10% follow Shi’a Islam in today’s society. Although they have split into two sects, they still agree on most of the fundamental ideas behind Islam.

 

Shi’a Muslims will only accept the Prophet’s family and descendants of the same blood line to lead Dar al Islam and to be the direct interpreters of the Qur’an. If there are any questions of faith they will turn to the imams of the Prophets family. They believe in the Imamate and social justice as well as the other main teachings found within Islam and the four schools of thought. The first Shi’a mosque and theological college of Al Azhar was founded in Al Qahira (Cairo) which became the leading centre of Shi’a learning (Hiro, 1989). The core beliefs and practises of Shi’ite Muslims are centres around Ali’s youngest son, Hussein who was martyred by Sunni forces in the Battle of Karbala in 680. They commemorate his death of the tenth day of Muharram in a ritual known as Ashura. This is marked by self-flagellation, performed with whips and knives (Blanchard, 2008). This is done to revive the memory of Imam Hussein and is also a reminder of the early history of Islam (Hiro, 1989). Shi’ites justify self-flagellation as a sign of their devotion, and as a symbol of their love for Hussein, however this form of self-harm is forbidden in Islam as part of the belief of the sanctity of life; the human body is a gift from God so it should not be harmed, as to harm it would be harming God.

 

Shi’a Muslims also believe in temporary marriage, also known as Muta. It is a contract between a man who can be married, and an unmarried woman. The contract binds them to one another for a duration set previously. Both parties must agree on the duration of the marriage, and it can be as varied as they like, ranging from either one hour or ninety-nine years. At the end of a temporary marriage, there is no need for divorce as the muta contract expires at the end of its duration. There are no witnesses required for a temporary marriage, but it does still have to be registered in court like a permanent marriage. When the marriage expires, a wife cannot claim any maintenance off her husband, however if they have children whilst they are married the husband cannot disown the children as they are viewed as being legitimate, and are therefore entitled to an equal share in inheritance from the father. A temporary marriage can become a permanent marriage if the two involved parties essentially ‘fall in love’ and decide they want to make it into a permanent loving relationship. (Hilsum, 2008)

 

Shi’a Muslims also follow a belief called ‘taqiyyah’ which is a doctrine of shielding. This doctrine allows a Shi’a Muslim to hide their belief and to lie about their faith if they are in a minority and have to do so as a form of protection. This allows them to portray themselves outside as a Sunni Muslim whilst knowing internally that they are Shi’a. This belief they are following is not justified by any Hadith, nor is it mentioned in the Qur’an. The Qur’an mentions “Surely Allah does not guide him aright who is he a liar, ungrateful” (Surah az-Sumar 39:3), and this gives evidence that they are disobeying their religion and the word of God as it says not to lie, and by hiding their true identity, whether for safety or not it is still wrong.

 

Shi’ism has a school of thought which is divided into three subdivisions known as the Twelvers, Zaydis and Ismailis. Each subdivision believes in a certain number of Imam’s. The twelvers are the largest group of followers and believe that there were twelve Imams following the Prophet Muhammad. Ismaili Shi’ites, believed there were only 7 Imam’s, and regarded Ismail, the eldest son of Ja’far al Sadiq to be the last Imam, but following his death they are still following his son and descendants as they are the closest beings to the Imam. Zaidis have a belief of 5 true Imams, following Zaid ibn Ali, who was the grandson of the third Shi’ite imam, Hussein (the martyr, and grandson of the Prophet) (Shi’ism, 2005).

 

On the other hand, Sunni Muslims believe caliphs are fallible interpreters of the Qur’an, they also believe in monotheism, prophethood and resurrection (Hiro, 1989). They accept the four first caliphs as the ‘rightly guided’ rulers who followed the prophet, this includes Ali. Sunni Muslims will turn to scholars who know the Sunna’s of the prophet if they are needed help or guidance within their religion. They think that the Imam should be selected on a communal consensus, giving an equal chance to those who have studied the Qur’an and hadith, not just those in the blood line. Sunni’s do not have a rigid hierarchy, and as a result of this, is more flexible in allowing people to serve as prayer leaders and teachers. Within Sunni Islam, they follow four schools of thought that give the obligatory rulings for the day to day life of Muslims. These schools of thought offer a different understanding to the sayings of the Prophet and his companions. In some countries, these ideas give an ideological way for Muslims to practise their religion and are not legally binding.

 

The four schools of thought are Hanafi, Maliki, Shaf’i and Hanbali (Blanchard, 2008). The Hanafi school of thought was strongest during the time of the Abbasid Empire. It does not use the hadith or Sunna of the prophet for its teachings, therefore not obeying the requests left by Prophet Muhammad before his death. The Maliki school of thought has originated from a book written by Imam Malik, al Muwatta, which eventually came the legal text of the Abbasid state, therefore enforcing the rules of Imam Malik as law. Shaf’i school of thought was deeply inspired by the teachings of Imam Malik. Imam Shaf’i did not write or condone any of the teachings in the hadith or the fiqh, not because he had a lack of knowledge but because he had inclinations towards another school of thought. Imam Ahmad b. Hanbal wrote the Hanbali school of thought, after studying under Imam Shaf’i, he wrote his works under the reign of al-Mutawakil and passed away whilst he was still in power. His works were similar to the Maliki school of thought and both of their works were promoted by the Abbasid Caliphate (al-islam.org).

 

Sunni Muslims follow Sharia Law, which teach to protect and preserve social order, and teaches them how to live through guidance. The main principles of Sharia are the preservation and protection of religion, the preservation of life, of lineage, honour, property and belonging, and intelligence. Muslims protect and preserve their religion via ritual actions such as the call to prayer. These ritual actions are known as Ibadat. They preserve life through marriage, as they forbid temporary marriage unlike the Shi’ites. There is a law of preservation lineage, which means that a person has a right to know who they are. They deserve to know where they come from as a part of their inheritance from the father. Sharia law also forbids the use of alcohol and substance abuse under the law of preservation of intelligence. This is a law given by the Qur’an “O you who believe, intoxicants, gambling, altars and arrows of chance are afflictions which are the work of the devil; you shall stay away from him, that you may succeed.” (Surah 5:90) clearly stating that in order to succeed as a person of God, you must abstain from the use of alcohol or other intoxicants. (Kabbani)

 

Both Sunni and Shi’a Muslims share a belief in the common traditions, beliefs and doctrines. They all agree that Prophet Muhammad was the Messenger for Allah and that they must obey the rules sent by Allah to the Prophet through revelations, and they should also abide by the teachings of the prophet, taught via the hadith. Piety, striving for goodness and social justice are just three of the fundamental values essential for practising Islam. It is also mandatory that all Muslims should live by the Five Pillars, following the Sunna of the Prophet. However, the strongest differences within the two groups are their beliefs in who the first caliph should have been; Sunni’s agree that it should have been Abu Bakr, whereas Shi’ites disagree and think it should have been Imam Ali. Through this disagreement they have both suffered a loss of followers, through warfare, and they have completed separated themselves to become separate groups with only a few small disagreements. They also disagree on the topic of temporary marriage as Shi’a Muslims allow it as it can potentially make a relationship stronger in the long term, unlike Sunni Muslims who will completely disagree and claim that by following Sharia Law a marriage should be between two people who love and care for one another. They also disagree on self-harm and self-flagellation, as Sunni’s believe that the Qur’an says not to harm yourself, but Shi’ites will retaliate to this with it being a demonstration of their love and thanks to Hussein. Within today’s society the split between Sunni and Shia Muslim’s is very large, most Shi’a Muslims live in Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan and Bahrain, and make up ten to fifteen percent of the worlds population of Muslims, in comparison to Sunni Muslims who live all over the world, and make up eighty-five to ninety percent of the population. There is still a lot of tension between both groups which causes many Shi’a Muslims to perform taqiyyah as an act of self defence.

 

Shaman Ritual Practises

This paper will address the ideas behind shamanism, what it includes and what it means to be a shaman performing ritualistic practices. It will also look at what ritualistic practises can achieve and why they are important to Shamans in the current day and in the past. The paper will also review where Shamanism has come from, and the history of Paganism whilst looking over the reasons why people become Pagans and Shamans. It will also consider Native American tribes, specifically the Lakota tribe and investigate their rituals of Sun Dancing and Ghost Dancing before comparing them against each other.

The idea of Paganism as we know it today was created by the early Christian Church as a label for those who did not follow Christianity in a derogatory sense (Davies, 2011). The term Paganism was derived during the renaissance, with people trying to differentiate older traditions from contemporary Christian ideas. It roughly translates from Latin to mean “country-dweller” or “rustic”. There was originally a different word used to describe pagans as they are now known, but because of its use in religious texts, authors mistakenly believed it to be from a religious sect and therefore gave it that connotation (Stone, 2014). “Pagan’s have no absolute source of authority for their spiritual beliefs other than their own conscience and tuition.” (Jennings, 2002). They believe entirely in the oneness of everything and the intercalation of life, respecting and worshipping the cycles of nature. According to Harvey (2000), “they believe individuals should have the freedom to choose their own beliefs and arrive at that path themselves.” Pagans have a positive morality, in which the individual is responsible for the discovery and development of their own nature with the outer world and community, expressed more commonly as ‘do what you will as long as you harm none’.  Most Pagans have a strong belief in reincarnation, because you are returning to life either as human or animal to maintain the balance within the universe. It is a common misconception that all Pagan’s practise witchcraft. Pagan’s do practise magic, but it is herbal lore at most. Upon the age of 18, you may be initiated into certain Pagan groups as some groups insist on initiating new members; an initiation symbolises the transformation process within each individual, seen as a type of rebirth and it is a personal and powerful experience. There are different forms of Pagan pathways that can be followed such as druidry, shamanism or you can follow your own path individually.

 

Shamanism is a later form of Paganism, with the word being Russian in origin. It means someone who follows a particular path of religious discipline (Jennings, 2002). To be a shaman means you are able to induce a trance like state through music, dance, song, meditation or pain willingly. Once they have reached an altered state on consciousness and travel into the spirit world, spiritual guides help them with their quest. Most shamans utilise their powers to benefit and help the community by healing the sick or helping fertilise crops. (Harner, 1982). People become Shamans because they want to heal and help people, and by having the ability to travel into other realms, they are given a supernatural power enabling them to do exactly that. They will also be people who relate to the common term of ‘Paganism’ who have explored different ideas within the term and settled with this one as it is most suited for them (What is Shamanism, 2015).

 

Shaman’s will take part in many different rituals such as divination, distance healing, the rites of Munay-Ki, curse removal and soul retrieval. Whilst these rituals are specific to Shamanism, they may also take part in Pagan rites and festivals such as wiccaning a baby, celebrating puberty, handfasting and funerals. Divination is the art of reading someone’s luminous energy via the soul to give information on their past, present and future by addressing subjects like spiritual growth, finances, health, relationships, past lives, the souls purpose and answering any questions they are asked. The rites of Munay-Ki are to become a healer or to initiate you into the medicine way. There are nine rites of Munay Ki; rite one; the Healers rite, rite two; Bands of Power, rite three; harmony rite, rite four; seer’s rite, rite five; daykeeper’s rite, rite six: wisdomkeeper’s rite, rite seven: earthkeeper’s rite, rite eight: starkeeper’s rite, rite nine: creator rite. It is thought that combining these nine rites can create a powerful healer and seer, one who knows all there is to know and aids others by showing them the light and helping them improve themselves. (Munay-Ki). Soul retrieval is the heal a soul loss by gifting elements and medicinal gifts to the client. Soul retrieval may be required by someone who feels empty inside or like they are missing something and are unable to retrieve it themselves. Soul loss can occur in the present life or be carried with a person from a past life, and it may happen without recollection of knowing when it was lost. (Spiritual Healing, 2015)

 

Native American shamans have many tribes, such as Chukchee, Sea Dyak, Patagonians, Aruacanians, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Navaho, Pawnee, Lakota and Ute. Within the individual tribes, they will also have tribe-specific rituals and festivals they have to partake in and celebrate. (Shamanism, 2015). For example, within the Chukchee tribe their main festival is one in which sacrifices were made to the spirits that the Chukchi depended upon for their survival. (Nelson, 2012) Another example is the Cheyenne tribe who celebrated many events and accomplishments through rituals like smoking of the peace pipe, who the Cheyenne men highly valued and was essentially a custom (The Cheyenne Tribe of Native American Indians, 1995). The Lakota tribe had many different rituals and rites including the rain dance, the ghost dance, and the sun dance (Taylor, 2005).

 

Shamanism is a huge religion across Native America, with most North American tribes following it. This is important because it shows how it spread worldwide to become something huge. Shamanism is shown in many different forms across Native America, being adapted to suit each tribe, but still holding it’s essential building blocks and truths it must hold in order to be known as shamanism such as entering a transcendental state to become a part of another realm. It is believed that Shamans migrated to North America from Siberia over eleven thousand years ago, they lived peacefully until around the fifteenth Century, when the Europeans arrived in North America. At this point, they became victims to disease due to horses being brought over, killing thousands with chickenpox and measles. (The History of Native Americans, 2015). More specifically, the Lakota Tribe, who are also known as Sioux, became hunter-gatherers as they move out of Minnesota, and their main resource was a large number of buffalo and other large mammals. After the European incursion, they became more successful hunters as rifles and horses helped them become more precise and allowed them to engage in the fur trade in the eighteenth century, expanding until, at least, the 1850’s. The Lakota view their relationships to their relatives as a sacred responsibility, and extends not just to humans but the entire universe. Lakota spirituality is not restricted by interaction with spiritual beings or rituals known outside of the tribe such as the sun dance, sweatlodge, yuwipi, but also the medicinal practises, aided with spiritual inspiration. Participation in Lakota tribes is increasing as a number of Lakota leave Christian beliefs to return to Lakota, or are combining both Christian and Lakota beliefs.

 

By 1980, the Ghost Dance reached the Lakota tribe who had been hit by the struggles of Reservation life and had been fighting the US Army for the right to continue their traditional way of life. The ghost dance promised that if they Lakota’s performed the dance with all their hearts and abstained from violence, the ‘white people’ who were flooding into the Great Plains would be eradicated. This dance promised a way back to their cultural past and large numbers accepted what it was and began to partake in the dance. The most influential leader, Sitting Bull, supported this practise but did not take part in this dance himself (Parker, 2015). It was told to them that if they followed this practise they would be reunited with the dead and the whites would disappear, it provided a hopeful message to all Indians but it was particularly enticing to Lakota’s who were suffering poor conditions on reservations and to the leaders who had resisted US Indian policy. (Wishart, 2011)

 

This ritual aimed to eradicate the white people from moving into Lakota areas, to bring back their cultural heritage and also bring back the dead or allow them to communicate with the dead. However, it was also a huge part of the community and brought them all together and sharing the same view and aim to have the same outcome and return back to their natural state within life, before they had been disrupted by the whites.

 

The Lakota people gather for the annual sun dance at the Wakpanni Lake on the Pine Ridge Reservation in south Dakota. Sun Dancers are able to recognise that they are taking part in a ceremony once belonging the their nineteenth-century ancestors, their person participation is not performed as a re-enactment of a more fortuitous time. It is instead an intense engagement with their ancestral relatives like the eagle nation and buffalo nation, and others, are fully interactive with the human community, brought together for the renewal of life’s important relationships. Sun Dancing is an act of political and cultural resistance against the aggressive force of the current culture, respecting continuity with the past and how their ancestors resisted too. (Taylor, 2005). The ceremony begins at sunrise, and anyone is able to dance. The dancers looked at the sun as they danced with short breaks for food and water. This ceremony continued for four days, allowing the self-sacrificers to prepare themselves. It was usually men who took part because they wanted something specific like good hunting skills, better fighting skills or healing powers. (Mails, 1978)

 

This ritual aimed to give the Lakota’s what they wanted through sacrificing themselves via excruciating pain as they danced around a pole with bone stuck through their chest to tear the flesh and release themselves. It allowed them to sacrifice themselves in front of others and gave them the opportunity to better themselves by appeasing the God’s they were dancing for. It was a time of renewal for the tribes and the earth.

 

The Ghost Dance was performed to give the tribes what they wanted; to go back to a peaceful time before the invasion of the Europeans and the White People, it also allowed for the Lakota’s to communicate with the dead and rekindle their cultural heritage. Performing the Ghost Dance gave all Indians hope, but especially the Lakota’s who were suffering the affects of the reservations due to resisting the US Indian Policy. On the other hand, the Sun Dance was performed to give the Lakota’s a chance to prove themselves by suffering excruciating pain to try and release themselves from the bone, to prove that they are worthy of having better hunting skills, fighting skills or healing powers. The Ghost Dance only lasted a few years due to the US army seeing it as potentially threatening and slaughtering the Lakota’s during the Wounded Knee Massacre (Mails, 1978), whereas the Sun Dance is still practised within the Lakota tribes today. The Ghost Dance was not a purely Lakota ritual and it did not originate with them either (Mails, 1978), unlike the Sun Dance which originates with the Lakota tribes and specifically has stayed with them and only them for hundreds of years. Other tribes may have different versions of the Sun Dance, but the Lakota Sun Dance specifically belongs to them, and others may be different variations.

 

Within ritualistic practises, Shamans aim to achieve positive, exuberant outcomes for themselves. For example, the Lakota’s aim was to eradicate the white people with the Ghost Dance, and to better themselves in the Sun Dance. Everything ritual a shaman performs is to better themselves or the community they live in. Shaman’s can only name themselves shamans if they are able to induce a trance like state through music, dance, song, meditation or pain. Upon entering this trance, they explore the spirit world to find help and learn how to become healers and heal people with illness or to heal the earth so they are able to grow crops and live well without famine. A Shamans main goal, through ritualistic practises is to help others and protect the environment, earth and nature of which they worship, to be the best they can be and aid others in becoming the greatest of their beings. It is clear to see that in all of the rituals and festivals and rites you can take part in as a shaman, as long as you hold the fundamental values of doing good to others, the community and helping to heal those who need healing either in sickness or the earth, in either realm you enter dependant on your mental state, your aim of the ritual is to do something good for the benefit of yourself and others.

 

 

Reference List:

Davies, O. (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

 

Harner, M. (1982). The Way of the Shaman. London: Bantam Books.

 

Harvey, G. H. (2000). Pagan Pathways, A Guide to the Ancient Earth Traditions. London: Thorsons.

 

Jennings, P. (2002). Pagan Paths, A Guide To Wicca, Druidry, Asatru, Shamanism and other Pagan Practices. London: Rider.

 

Mails, T. E. (1978). Wiwanke Wachipi – The Sun Dance. Retrieved January 12, 2016, from aktalakota.stjo.org: http://aktalakota.stjo.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=8668

 

Munay-Ki. (n.d.). Rites. Retrieved from munay-ki.org: http://munay-ki.org/rites-of-passage/

 

Nelson, J. (2012, February). Chukchi. Retrieved January 12, 2016, from beforethey.com:

http://www.beforethey.com/tribe/chukchi

 

Parker, Z. (2015). Analysis: The Ghost Dance Among the Lakota.

 

Shamanism. (2015). Retrieved January 12, 2016, from crystalinks.com: http://www.crystalinks.com/shamanism.html

 

Spiritual Healing. (2015). Retrieved January 12, 2016, from shamanic-healing.org: http://www.shamanic-healing.org/?page=spiritual_healing_services

 

Stone, R. (2014, November 9). The True Meaning of Paganism. Retrieved January 12, 2016, from ancient-origins.net: http://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/true-meaning-paganism-002306

 

Taylor, B. (2005). Lakota. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Nature .

 

The Cheyenne Tribe of Native American Indians. (1995). Retrieved January 12, 2016, from indians.org: http://www.indians.org/articles/cheyenne-tribe.html

 

The History of Native Americans. (2015). Retrieved January 12, 2016, from indians.org: http://www.indians.org/articles/native-americans.html

 

What is Shamanism. (2015). Retrieved January 12, 2016, from shamanic-healing.org: http://www.shamanic-healing.org/?page=what_is_shamanism

 

Wishart, D. J. (2011). Ghost Dance. Retrieved January 12, 2016, from plainshumanities.unl.edu: http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.rel.023

 

 

Hindu and Buddhist belief.

This paper will compare and contrast various beliefs of reincarnation within both Hinduism and Buddhism, meaning their individual views of life after death, including what they believe happens, how it happens within each religion and why it happens for them in the way it does. I will compare and contrast the ideas against each other showing their differences but also their similarities for the idea of reincarnation. Hindu’s lives are constructed to live a certain way dependent on their place in the caste system, they can only do and have certain things. They live good lives because they know they will be punished in their next life, and acts of evil cannot be redeemed in the same life. Hindu’s live by following the Ten Disciplines: truth, non-violence, celibacy and non-adultery, not stealing, not being corrupt, being clean, contentment, reading scriptures, austerity and regular prayers. These ten disciplines are believed to be key in building good karma and preparing them for moksha. (www.hinduism.about.com) For a Buddhist, the meaning of life is to be discovered by each individual person, once this has been found they must make an effort to overcome ignorance and temptation in order to reach enlightenment. This is often done through meditation, “as a person is reminded that he is the heir of his karma and the master of his destiny” (Dhammananda). A Buddhists life is seen as a process of self-transformation, meaning they no longer want a divine rebirth, but instead set their goal to reach enlightenment and become entirely liberated and free from the wheel of samsara. (Dhammananda)

 

Hindu Views and Ideas of Death:

The Hindu idea of is that death is that it is a natural process, because they view the existence of a soul as being separate from the body. As death approaches, if the sufferer is in hospital they will be brought home, and placed in either their bedroom or at the entrance to the house with their head facing south, reflecting their return back to nature, a lamp will be lit near the head and the near-deceased are encouraged to focus on his mantra. When it is apparent death is imminent, Kindred are notified, who hold vigil until they have passed through singing, hymns, reading scripture and prayer. If they are too sick to leave hospital, these arrangements are made at the hospital, disregarding objections made by the institution. (Hinduism Today) Upon death, a family member should quietly chant the mantra into the right ear, however if none are known, “Aum Namo Narayana” or “Aum Nama Sivaya” should be chanted instead, they place holy ash or sandal paste on the forehead and chant verses from the Veda’s whilst dripping milk, holy water or water from the Ganga into their mouth. Incense is burned around the home and a cloth is tied around the chin and forehead, whilst the big toes and thumbs are also tied together. If the deceased passes in hospital, the family have the death certificate written immediately and then take the body home as it is not to be embalmed or have the organs removed for the use of others. (Hinduism Today) All religious pictures are turned to face the wall, and mirrors are also covered to start the grieving process and they begin to prepare the body for cremation. The chief mourner performs arati: passing an oil lamp over the remains, then offering flowers to the deceased. Dependent on the gender of the deceased, the male/female family members will carry the body to the back porch, remove the clothes and drape the body with a white cloth, before applying sesame oil to the head, whilst the body is bathed in water from the nine kumbhas, then dressed and placed in a coffin and carried to a homa shelter. Young children circle the body with sticks lit with fire and sing to them, before women walk around the body offering puffed rice into their mouth to nourish them for the journey they have ahead. If they are unable to bring the body home from hospital, the family make arrangements to to clean and dress the body in the mortuary rather than leaving it to strangers. (Hinduism Today) After death, Hindu’s are not buried, they are cremated as they believe that the body is made of 5 elements; fire, earth, water, air and ether. Ether is an element that does not belong to the earth, and that is what they believe the soul to be. By cremating the body, the elements are returned to their rightful and respective spheres within the universe, meaning the soul can return for a continued life, an afterlife. (www.religiousmovements.org)

 

For Hindu’s, the death of a human is followed by rebirth, and this cycle continues until they reach Moksha (Narayanan, 2004). It is believed that the cycle of reincarnation is linked to the Hindu Caste systems. The Caste system is used as a way to divide the priests(Brahmin), rulers(Kshatriya), merchants(Vaishya) and servants(Shudra) within India. Ritual practices, dietary programs, and dialects can differ between castes. The Caste System is important in Traditional Hinduism as they believe that upon rebirth, they can move up or down in the caste as a response to how they have acted in their previous life. In order to move up in the caste system, you have to do good things and redeem yourself for anything evil that you do, however if you live a life of evil you will be born back into a lower caste. (Oxtoby, 2014)
“The castes are related hierarchically to one another: each is either superior or inferior to its neighbours, and they are often further divided into sub-castes” (Oxtoby, 2014, p33). It is also illegal for inter-caste marriage, so you cannot move up the caste system through marrying into a higher caste. In order for a Hindu to reach liberation they must move upwards through the caste system until they reach the state of Brahmin as a male, because if you reach the state of Brahmin as a female, you are not able to move forward to the level of Brahman, so you must wait to be reborn into a male body when the God’s deem you as being worthy of liberation.

 

Buddhist Views and Ideas of Death:

In comparison, the Buddha taught that all of us will pass in a natural way such as old age, and we should always be aware of the impermanence of life. The Buddhist interpretation of death is to view it not as the end of life, but as nothing more than the end of the body we live in during this life. They believe that the spirit will remain in this earth and find a new body or life form to attach itself to. (www.urbandharma.org) As death is approaching, ask them questions to find out how much they know and understand spiritually, to help them keep their faith and remind them of what is important to them. Encourage them to do what they know, for example if they are a practitioner of mindfulness meditation, remind and encourage them to practice this as much as possible, and provide them inspiration to do these practices. If they are struggling, practice it with them. It is helpful for the nearly deceased to see images of Buddha or idols they favour to keep them calm during the suffering. Reading to a Buddhist before death approaches about impermanence and other Buddhist teachings they are used to and comfortable with with provide comfort and clarity, reminding them of the reason they are dying and that it is well deserved and to give them a better life in the future. (Khadro, 1999) Upon the moment of death, a person should continue to meditate or recite prayers and mantras, names of Buddha’s etc. for as long as possible once the person stops breathing as the loss of breath is not the end of their life, but when the consciousness leaves the body is the sign of death for Buddhism. It is necessary not to touch the body during the time before the spirit leaves the body, however if there is no other option you should pull on the hair at the crown of the head first, to stimulate their mind to leave from from there, indicating a fortunate rebirth for the person. Then, you are able to touch other parts of the body. (Khadro, 1999) For Buddhist’s, once a person dies on earth, they will be reborn into a new life, and the status of that life depends on the karma they have built up in a previous life. (www.religiousmovements.org) Buddhists believe in the wheel of samsara, and to escape this cycle, they will inevitably take on many different forms through life. For example, the highest state of life is a Deva, deities, angels or spirits, below that is the Asuras, meaning lower deities, then humans, following that animals, then Preta, being hungry ghosts and finally Nakara, the denizens of hell (Eckel, 2010). The wheel of Samsara is driven by karma; a metaphysical energy that produces the motion for the cycle of life. Doing good deeds creates positive karma, whereas doing bad things will create negative karma. Buddhists aim to build build up enough good karma that they can eventually leave the wheel of samsara by reaching the supreme state of Nirvana, the final destination and reason for breaking free of the cycle. In order to reach nirvana, you must break free of samara through the elimination of ignorance and craving of physical possessions (Burke, 2004).

 

Buddhists live their lives in order to follow the Four Noble Truths; suffering, in that no living being can escape suffering, whether its through birth, sickness, death, or physical or psychological. Origin, suffering arises through craving and desire, cessation the truth that suffering will end when craving and desire ends. Finally, the truth of the Eightfold Path, meaning that it is possible to put an end to desire by following the eight principles of self-improvements (Oxtoby, 2014). The Eightfold Path consists of right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. It is said that you should live this life following these paths and abstaining from harmful actions as it will allow you to escape punishments in a later life. Mental concentration or meditation helps to escape the desire for harmful actions. Many Buddhists spend most of their time meditating to escape reality and purify themselves so that they are able to abstain from negative karma and only build positive so they can hopefully more forward in the cycle of samsara and eventually break free, into Nirvana (Eckel, 2010).

 

Retributive Karma:

In the western world, ‘Karma’ has been interpreted in a similar way to the Hindu and Buddhist idea; it is used to explain something bad happening to somebody after they have performed an act of evil, but without a belief in reincarnation or rebirth. As a comparison, neither religion focus on what we know to be retributive karma. “If a patient and a doctor both inhabit a culture where the doctrine of karma and reincarnation is generally accepted, they may take it for granted that although the patients long-term smoking habit has contributed to her developing lung cancer, the underlying reason why she has developed the disease (because not everyone who smokes develops lung cancer) is because she engaged in immoral behavior in one or more previous lives” (Burley, 2012, p. 10). This gives a general explanation of retributive karma, when applied to Hinduism or Buddhism in the Western World, this shows how it can be applied to a western lifestyle. When looking into the history of karma, it is shown to be focused on doing good deeds in one life to receive good things in the next life, but this idea explains why the negative things happen to someone who may have no recollection of evil deeds in a previous life. Willson, (1987 p. 54) says that “were someone to be killed by a falling branch while walking through a forest, a scientific explanation for the occurrence would leave us with no account other the “coincidence,” of why this person happened to be walking beneath that particular branch at precisely the time when it fell. In some cultures, an explanation in terms of sorcery might be looked for, whereas from a Buddhist perspective, an explanation would refer to a person’s Karma”. There is little evidence for reincarnation and retributive karma, but that doesn’t mean they cannot or do not exist. (Burley, 2012)

 

 

Comparing and Contrasting Hindu and Buddhist ideas of Reincarnation:

It is definitely true to say that they have many similarities and differences. For example, when preparing for death, Hindu’s have rituals that must be done, such as lighting the lamp near the head, having kindred hold vigil until after they have passed and applying holy ash or sandal paste to their forehead (Hinduism Today), whereas Buddhists have no specific rituals and it is about the individual persons’ beliefs, to keep them calm and clear minded, remembering that they are not dying, just moving forward into a different body (Dhammananda). Their views of reincarnation are also differences in that Hindu’s believe they are reincarnated to help them move up the caste system and into a state of Brahmin if they do good deeds unlike Buddhists, who are trying to escape the cycle of Samsara by reaching enlightenment through meditation to build up good karma as they have abstained from evil deeds and bad thoughts, causing them to be liberated and single mindedly aiming for enlightenment and to be welcomed to Nirvana. Hindu and Buddhist thoughts of the different levels of reincarnation are similar because Hindu’s have the caste system to state what level in the physical world they will be viewed as; Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, to show their social status and how they should act and be treated. (Narayanan, 2004) On the otherhand, Buddhists have 6 different forms they may take throughout their rebirths: Devas, Asuras, Humans, Angels, Preta and Naraka, all being different levels on the wheel of samsara showing how they have proven themselves and separated themselves from the physical world (Eckel, 2010). They are also both similar with the thought of retributive karma and explaining how both Hinduism and Buddhist thought can be adapted to the western world by explaining why things happen and not just that it has happened due to karma. They both explore different ideas but apply the idea of retributive karma in the same way; as a subtle, un-obvious punishment to show that they have been immoral in a previous life.

 

 

Conclusion:

Although Hinduism and Buddhism both have different interpretations of reincarnation and idea’s about how death should be treated, acted upon and prepared for, they are both undoubtedly similar in the way they are able to apply different ideas to their religions and still make complete sense and how they both have a structure to their ladder of rebirth to reach liberation and freedom from the system they are trapped in. They both are also essentially aiming for the same outcome of gaining freedom and becoming the highest rank they can, for Hindu’s, a Brahman or for Buddhists, a Buddha. Despite their similarities they also have complete differences too. They both have a different view on what death is; for Hindu’s it is a natural process because of the soul being separate from the body (www.religiousmovements.org), and for Buddhists it is that life is impermanent. (Eckel, 2014).  In both religions, death happens for different reasons, but both ideas of death have the same outcome of reincarnation, being born again into a separate body and the soul living on in another form which despite all other arguments leads to the conclusion that both of these religions, however different in their ideas of what to do as death approaches and how to respond to death, and prepare for death have the same outcome in that the soul will live on in another form, life will inevitably continue for that person but in another way. They may or may not remember their past lives or experiences but they will always live on from where they have passed to hopefully continue a life following their religion they have known previously to give them full liberation until they are able to become truly wholesome in their belief and reach the final resting point in either Nirvana or Moksha.

 

 

Reference List:

 

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http://www.religiousmovements.org/views-on-death-according-to-different-religions/

 

Narayanan, V. (2004). Understanding Hinduism. Duncan Baird Press: London.

 

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